Call For Paper September 2026
Research Article | Open Access | Download PDF
Volume 13 | Issue 9 | Year 2026 | Article Id. IJCE-V13I9P119 | DOI : https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V13I9P119

Effects of Multiple Precursors on Bond Strength and Flexural Performance of Ambiently Cured on Geopolymer Concrete

Baskara Sundararaj J, Kannan Rajkumar P R

Received Revised Accepted Published
27 Mar 2026 08 Sep 2026 11 Sep 2026 29 Sep 2026

Citation :

Baskara Sundararaj J, Kannan Rajkumar P R, "Effects of Multiple Precursors on Bond Strength and Flexural Performance of Ambiently Cured on Geopolymer Concrete," International Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 13, no. 9, pp. 320-338, 2026. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V13I9P119

Abstract

The present study investigates the bond strength and flexural behavior Of Geopolymer-based Reinforced Concrete (GPRC) beams to assess their suitability as sustainable alternatives to conventional concrete structures. Geopolymer Concrete (GPC) prepared with industrial byproducts, Fly Ash (FA), Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), and Silica Fume (SF), is environmentally friendly due to its significantly reduced carbon footprint. Tests involved an extensive set of experiments on GPRC beams to determine mechanical properties, steel–GPC interface BS, and flexural behavior. Experimental results are analyzed here using critical structural performance parameters such as crack initiation-propagation, failure modes, ultimate load-carrying capacity, moment versus deflection, strain response, end rotations and ductility ratios. For mixes GP30M4, GP50M4, and GP70M4 with hidden reinforcement, 12-mm-diameter rebars replaced by 10-mm-diameter rebars indicated an improvement in BS of 3.82%, 5.61%, and 6.51%, respectively. Similarly, in the case of 10-mm-diameter reinforcement, the BS for mix GP70M4 exhibited up to a 69.12% increase compared to mix GP30M4. Similarly, the ultimate load-carrying capacity of GP70M4 beams showed an 8.79% increase compared to GP30M4 beams. A higher initial deflection was observed in GP30M4 beams because of the diminished modulus of elasticity, reflecting the aspect of crack control; however, these features are favorable in the case of higher-grade concrete. In conclusion, GP70M4 GPRC provided BS comparable to or even superior to that of GP30M4 GPRC, while tests related to flexure showed improved capacity and ductility. Outcomes confirm the structural efficiency of GPC concrete and recommend its application as an environmentally green option.

Keywords

Geopolymer Reinforced Concrete, Geopolymer Concrete, Bond Strength, Crack patterns, Ultimate load capacity, Midspan displacement, Strain behavior, End rotation and Ductility ratio.

References

  1. Hemn Unis Ahmed et al., “Geopolymer Concrete as a Cleaner Construction Material: An Overview on Materials and Structural Performances,” Cleaner Materials, vol. 5, pp. 1-18, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  2. Adeyemi Adesina, “Recent Advances in the Concrete Industry to Reduce its Carbon Dioxide Emissions,” Environmental Challenges, vol. 1, pp. 1-8, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  3. Fred Andrews-Phaedonos, “Geopolymer “Green” Concrete – Reducing the Carbon Footprint – The VicRoads Experience,” 8th Austroads Bridge Conference, Sydney, NSW, Australia, pp. 386-396, 2011.
    [    Google Scholar]
  4. Ahmad L. Almutairi, “Potential Applications of Geopolymer Concrete in Construction: A Review,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 15, pp. 1-20, 2021.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  5. Peiliang Cong et al., “Comparison and Assessment of Carbon Dioxide Emissions between Alkali-Activated Materials and OPC Cement Concrete,” Journal of Traffic and Transportation Engineering (English Edition), vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 918-938, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  6. Amer Hassan, Mohammed Arif, and M. Shariq, “Use of Geopolymer Concrete for a Cleaner and Sustainable Environment–A Review of Mechanical Properties and Microstructure,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 223, pp. 704-728, 2019.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  7. Parah Salsabeel Jalal, Vikas Srivastava, and A. K. Tiwari, “Geopolymer Concrete: An Alternative to Conventional Concrete for Sustainable Construction,” Journal of Environmental Nanotechnology, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 218-225, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  8. Rania Emara et al., “Geopolymers as Sustainable Alternates for Portland Cement in Constructive Concrete: Systematic Review,” Alexandria Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 90-103, 2024.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  9. Arun Parashar et al., “Regression and Cluster Analysis of GGBS based Geopolymer Compositeat Different Proportion of Ceramic Dust,” Indian Journal of Engineering and Materials Sciences (IJEMS), vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 747-756, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  10. Arun Kumar Parashar, and Nakul Gupta, “An Investigation of Micro-Silica Inclusion in Slag-based Geopolymer Concrete with Regression and Cluster Analysis,” Asian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 24, no. 8, pp. 3759-3765, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  11. Jacqueline Obeng et al., “Bond Behavior of Reinforcing Steel Bars in Metakaolin – Calcium Carbide Residue-based Geopolymer Concrete,” Engineering Research Express, vol. 6, no. 3, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  12. Tuan Anh Le, Thuy Ninh Nguyen, and Khoa Tan Nguyen, “Experimental, Numerical, and Theoretical Studies of Bond Behavior of Reinforced Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete,” Applied Sciences, vol. 12, no. 15, pp. 1-19, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  13. Vincenzo Romanazzi, Marianovella Leone, and Maria Antonietta Aiello, “Bond Performance of Geopolymer Concrete with Steel and FRP Reinforcements,” Journal of Composites Science, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 1-22, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  14. Maria Antonietta Aiello et al., “Bond Behavior of Geopolymer Concrete with CFRP and GFRP Bars,” Proceedings of Italian Concrete Conference 2022, Naples, Italy, pp. 94-103, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  15. Padakanti Rakesh et al., “A Comparative Study on Bond Behavior of Ternary Blended Geopolymer Concrete and Conventional Concrete,” Low Carbon Materials and Technologies for a Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure Conference Paper, pp. 459-470, 2023. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  16. R. Nurwidayati et al., “Effect of Embedment Length on Bond Strength of Geopolymer Concrete,” AIP Conference Proceedings: Proceedings of Advanced Material, Engineering & Technology, Seoul, South Korea, vol. 2291, no. 1, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  17. Yuanzheng Lin et al., “Flexural Behaviour of Reinforced One-part Geopolymer Concrete Beams,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 96, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  18. Banu D. Handonoa et al., “The Evaluation of Behavior of Geopolymer Reinforced Concrete and Conventional Reinforced Concrete Beams: A Critical Review,” Research on Engineering Structures and Materials, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 1433-1457, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link].
  19. Xiangsheng Deng et al., “Experimental and Theoretical Study on the Effects of Stirrup Ratio and High Temperature on BFRP-Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Beams,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 117, pp. 1-27, 2026.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  20. Muhammad Sigit Darmawan et al., “Comparative Study of Flexural Performance of Geopolymer and Portland Cement Concrete Beam Using Finite Element Analysis,” International Journal of Geomate, vol. 23, no. 95, pp. 1-9, 2022.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  21. Hala Mamdouh et al., “Effects of Size and Flexural Reinforcement Ratio on Ambient-Cured Geopolymer Slag Concrete Beams under Four-Point Bending,” Buildings, vol. 12, no. 10, pp. 1-17, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  22. Basanth Babu K. Mohanram, and Ramesh Kanagavel, “Effect of Metakaolin on Mechanical Properties and Flexural Behavior of Geopolymer-Reinforced Concrete Beams,” Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, vol. 27, no. 3, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  23. P. Saranya et al., “Flexural Behaviour of GGBS-Dolomite Geopolymer Concrete Beams under Cyclic Loading,” Materials Science Forum, vol. 969, pp. 291-296, 2019.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  24. A. Suresh Kumar, “Flexural Behaviour of Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Incorporated with Hazardous Heavy Metal Waste Ash and Glass Powder,” Materials Science Forum, vol. 1048, pp. 345-358, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  25. Hemn Qader Ahmed, Dilshad Kakasor Jaf, and Sinan Abdulkhaleq Yaseen, “Comparison of the Flexural Performance and Behaviour of Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete Beams Reinforced with CFRP and GFRP Bars,” Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 2020, pp. 1-15, 2020. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  26. Veerappan Sathish Kumar et al., “Flexural Behaviour of Hybrid Fibre-Reinforced Ternary Blend Geopolymer Concrete Beams,” Sustainability, vol. 14, no. 10, pp. 1-16, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  27. Mohamed E. Fathi et al., “Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Flexural Behavior of Sustainable Self-Compacting Geopolymer RC Beams,” Innovative Infrastructure Solutions, vol. 11, pp. 1-18, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  28. P. Saranya, Praveen Nagarajan, and Shashikala Aikot Pallikkara, “Experimental and Numerical Studies on Geopolymer Concrete Beams Under Cyclic Loading,” Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, vol. 27, no. 1, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  29. Jie Su et al., “Flexural Behavior of Alkali-Activated Ultra-High-Performance Geopolymer Concrete Beams,” Buildings, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 1-18, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  30. Deyu Zheng et al., “Flexural Performance of Composite Beams with Engineered Geopolymer Composites and Concrete: Experimental and Finite Element Analysis,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 117, pp. 1-26, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  31. Kafi Matloob kafi, and Ali Sabah Al Amli, “The Impact of Shear Connector Numbers on the Flexural Performance of Composite Geopolymer Reinforced Concrete Beams with Big Transverse Web Openings,” Al-Rafidain Journal of Engineering Sciences, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 225-238, 2024. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  32. Muthusamy Saradha et al., “Flexural Behavior of Reinforced Geo-Polymer Concrete Beams at Ambient Temperature,” Pollack Periodica, vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 8-13, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link].
  33. ASTM C618-22 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, ASTM International, pp. 1-5, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  34. ASTM C989/C989M-22, Standard Specification for Slag Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars, American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 1-7, 2022.
    [    CrossRef] [Publisher Link]
  35. ASTM C1240-20 Standard Specification for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious Mixtures, American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 1-7, 2020.
    [    CrossRef] [Publisher Link]
  36. “IS 383-2016 Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete,” Bureau of Indian Standards, 3rd Revision, pp. 1-22, 2016.
    [    Publisher Link]
  37. John L. Provis, and Jannie S.J. van Deventer, Geopolymers: Structures, Processing, Properties and Industrial Applications, Woodhead Publishing, pp. 1-7, 2009.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  38. Samaneh Khaksefidi, Mansour Ghalehnovi, and Hosseinali Rahdar, “Bond-Slip Relationship between Deformed Rebar and Ultra-High-Performance Concrete with Corrosion Effect,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 21, pp. 1-22, 2024.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  39. Smith Songpiriyakij et al., “Anchorage of Steel Bars in Concrete by Geopolymer Paste,” Materials & Design, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 3021-3028, 2011.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  40. Aaron Kadima Lukanu Lwa Nzambi, “Pull-out Tests of Ribbed Steel Reinforcing Bars Embedded in Concrete with Steel Fibres,” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Structures and Buildings, vol. 174, no. 3, pp. 181-189, 2021.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  41. “IS 2770-1 (1967): Methods of Testing Bond in Reinforced Concrete,” Bureau of Indian Standards, pp. 1-15, 1967.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  42. “IS 456 (2000): Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice,” Bureau of Indian Standards, pp. 1-114, 2000.
    [    Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  43. Haroon Younas, Jing Yu, and Christopher K.Y. Leung, “Effect of Bar Diameter and Cover Thickness on Bond Behavior of Steel Bar in High-Strength SHCC Under Pull-Out Condition: Experimental Study and Efficient Finite Element Modeling,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 105, pp. 1-17, 2025.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  44. Bilal S. Hamad, “Bond Strength Improvement of Reinforcing bars with Specially Designed Rib Geometries,” ACI Structural Journal, vol. 92, no. 1, pp. 3-13, 1995.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  45. Amr Ashraf Soliman et al., “Effects of the Tensile Properties of UHPC on the Bond Behavior,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 392, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  46. Kui Chen, Linhao Zhang, and Xianqiao Wang, “Study on Bond Anchorage Behavior of Small-Diameter Rebar Planting under Medium and Low Cycle Fatigue Loads,” Applied Sciences, vol. 13, no. 13, pp. 1-20, 2023.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  47. “BS 8110-1: 1997 Structural use of Concrete - Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction,” British Standard, pp. 1-160, 1997.
    [    Publisher Link]
  48. Shuaib H. Ahmad, and Roy Barker, “Flexural Behavior of Reinforced High-Strength Lightweight Concrete Beams,” Structural Journal, vol. 88, no. 1, pp. 69-77, 1991.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  49. Samir A. Ashour, “Effect of Compressive Strength and Tensile Reinforcement Ratio on Flexural Behavior of High-Strength Concrete Beams,” Engineering Structures, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 413-423, 2000.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  50. K. Gunasekaran, R. Annadurai, and P.S. Kumar, “Study on Reinforced Lightweight Coconut Shell Concrete Beam Behavior under Flexure,” Materials & Design (1980-2015), vol. 46, pp. 157-167, 2013.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  51. Tai-Kuang Lee, and Austin D.E. Pan, “Estimating the Relationship between Tension Reinforcement and Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Beam Sections,” Engineering Structures, vol. 25, no. 8, pp. 1057-1067, 2003.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  52. M. A. Rashid, and M. A. Mansur, “Reinforced High-Strength Concrete Beams in Flexure,” ACI Structural Journal, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 462-471, 2005.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  53. R.N. Swamy, and G.H. Lambert, “Flexural behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beams Made with Fly Ash Coarse Aggregates,” International Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 189-200, 1984.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  54. M. Sivasakthi et al., “Thermal and Structural Micro Analysis of Micro Silica Blended Fly Ash based Geopolymer Composites,” Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 499, pp. 117-130, 2018.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
  55. S. Nagajothi, and S. Elavenil, “Effect of GGBS Addition on Reactivity and Microstructure Properties of Ambient Cured Fly Ash Based Geopolymer Concrete,” Silicon, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 507-516, 2021.
    [    CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]