Unlocking the Power of GO in Next-Gen Concrete: Strength, Hydration, and Microstructural Evolution

International Journal of Civil Engineering

© 2025 by SSRG - IJCE Journal

Volume 12 Issue 11

Year of Publication : 2025

Authors : P. M. Walunjkar, M. N. Bajad

10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V12I11P112

How to Cite?

P. M. Walunjkar, M. N. Bajad, "Unlocking the Power of GO in Next-Gen Concrete: Strength, Hydration, and Microstructural Evolution," SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 12,  no. 11, pp. 145-159, 2025. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V12I11P112

Abstract:

This study explores the impact of incorporating 0.03% Graphene Oxide (GO) into cement paste and concrete, with a focus on mechanical properties, microstructure, and hydration product evolution over 1 hour to 120 days. Key mechanical parameters—compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength—were evaluated at 3, 7, and 28 days. Results show significant improvements: flexural strength increased by 38–48%, split tensile strength by 22–35%, and compressive strength by 21–32%. GO accelerates hydration, promoting early formation of needle-like and flower-like crystals, enhancing development of Calcium Silicate Hydrate (C-S-H) gel, ettringite, and portlandite. SEM, XRD, and EDAX analyses revealed early rod-like crystals, which disappear with matrix densification but reemerge by day 7 and transform into flower-like forms by day 28. At 60 days, polyhedral and flower-like crystals surround residual needle-like structures, leading to a dense matrix by day 120 with icosahedral and cubic CaCO₃ crystals. XRD confirmed the presence of fullerite C₆₀, suggesting GO moderates early cement setting. Transient phases, such as magnesite and eitelite, emerge from magnesium-related reactions, improving the density and refining pores. A 90% increase in Ca (OH)₂ at day 7 transforms into CaCO₃, resulting in an average of 82% of the final 28-day mechanical strength within 7 days, which is 26% higher than that of conventional concrete. EDAX confirms GO's oxygen stabilization and consistent concentration over time. CH crystal size increased from 64 nm to 82 nm by day 7 and then stabilized, indicating improved crystallization. Portlandite and ettringite both exhibit hexagonal structures with lattice parameters a = 3.59 Å, c = 4.90 Å, and a = 11.23 Å, c = 21.44 Å, respectively. An average Ca/Si ratio of 2.06 suggests improved tensile strength and stiffness. These results underscore the potential of GO as an innovative additive for developing high-performance concrete, contributing to the advancement of modern sustainable construction.

Keywords:

C-S-H bonding, Ca/Si ratio, EDAX analysis, Graphene Oxide (GO), Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), SEM, XRD.

References:

[1] Mugineysh Murali et al., “Utilizing Graphene Oxide in Cementitious Composites: A Systematic Review,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, vol. 17, pp. 1-27, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[2] Shenghua Lv et al., “Effect of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Cement Composites,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 49, pp. 121-127, 2013.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[3] Shenghua Lv et al., “Use of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets to Regulate the Microstructure of Hardened Cement Paste to Increase Its Strength and Toughness,” CrystEngComm, vol. 16, no. 36, pp. 8508-8516, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[4] Shuaijie Lu et al., “Reinforcing Mechanisms Review of the Graphene Oxide on Cement Composites,” Nanotechnology Reviews, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-19, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[5] K.M. Lee, and J.H. Park, “A Numerical Model for Elastic Modulus of Concrete Considering Interfacial Transition Zone,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 396-402, 2008.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[6] M. Devasena, and J. Karthikeyan, “Investigation on Strength Properties of Graphene Oxide Concrete,” International Journal of Engineering Science Invention Research & Development, vol. 1, pp. 307-310, 2015.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[7] Valles Romero José Antonio, Cuaya-Simbro German, and Morales Maldonado Emilio Raymundo, “Optimizing Content Graphene Oxide in High Strength Concrete,” International Journal of Scientific Research and Management, vol. 4, no. 6, pp. 4324-4332, 2016.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[8] K.R. Mohammad Shareef, Shaik Abdul Rawoof, and K. Sowjanya, “A Feasibility Study on Mechanical Properties of Concrete with Graphene Oxide,” International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 4, no. 12, pp. 218-224, 2017.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[9] Kandhunuri Srikanth, and T. Ashok, “An Experimental Study on Mechanical Properties of Concrete by Using Graphene Oxide,” International Journal of Research, vol. 7, no. 10, pp. 150-154, 2018.
[Publisher Link]
[10] Jinwoo An et al., “Feasibility of using Graphene Oxide Nanoflake (GONF) as Additive of Cement Composite,” Applied Sciences, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 1-13, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[11] Zengshun Chen et al., “Modeling Shrinkage and Creep for Concrete with Graphene Oxide Nanosheets,” Materials, vol. 12, no. 19, pp. 1-19, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[12] Sen Du et al., “Effect of Admixing Graphene Oxide on Abrasion Resistance of Ordinary Portland Cement Concrete,” AIP Advances, vol. 9, no. 10, pp. 1-9, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[13] P.K. Akarsh et al., “Influence of Graphene Oxide on Properties of Concrete in the Presence of Silica Fumes and M-Sand,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 268, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[14] Sanglakpam Chiranjiakumari Devi, and Rizwan Ahmad Khan, “Effect of Sulfate Attack and Carbonation in Graphene Oxide–Reinforced Concrete Containing Recycled Concrete Aggregate,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 32, no. 11, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[15] Yihong Xu, and Yingfang Fan, “Effects of Graphene Oxide Dispersion on Salt-Freezing Resistance of Concrete,” Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 2020, no. 1, pp. 1-9, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[16] Zengshun Chen et al., “Mechanical Properties and Shrinkage Behavior of Concrete-Containing Graphene-Oxide Nanosheets,” Materials, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1-15, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[17] Namrata N. Chavan, and M.S. Karriappa, “An Experimental Investigation on Strength Properties of Concrete with Graphene Oxide,” International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1981-1984, 2021.
[Publisher Link]
[18] Osama Zaid et al., “Experimental Study on the Properties Improvement of Hybrid Graphene Oxide Fiber-Reinforced Composite Concrete,” Diamond and Related Materials, vol. 124, pp. 1-12, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[19] Ali Jahami et al., “Effect of Graphene as Additive on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete,” NanoWorld Journal, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. S87-S92, 2023.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[20] Pooja Kaushik, Owais Ul Hassan, and Asif Hussain, “Impact of Graphene Insertıon on the Workabılıty of Concrete,” International Journal of Civil, Structural, Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering Research and Development, vol. 14, no. 1, 2023.
[Google Scholar]
[21] Xiantong Yan et al., “Study of Optimizing Graphene Oxide Dispersion and Properties of the Resulting Cement Mortars,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 257, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[22] Wu-Jian Long et al., “Performance Enhancement and Environmental Impact of Cement Composites Containing Graphene Oxide with Recycled Fine Aggregates,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 194, pp. 193-202, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[23] Liulei Lu, and Dong Ouyang, “Properties of Cement Mortar and Ultra-High Strength Concrete Incorporating Graphene Oxide Nanosheets,” Nanomaterials, vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 1-14, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[24] Danula Udumulla et al., “Effect of Graphene Oxide Nanomaterials on the Durability of Concrete: A Review on Mechanisms, Provisions, Challenges, and Future Prospects,” Materials, vol. 17, no. 10, pp. 1-23, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[25] Liguo Wang et al., “Effect of Graphene Oxide (GO) on the Morphology and Microstructure of Cement Hydration Products,” Nanomaterials, vol. 7, no. 12, pp. 1-10, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[26] Guo-jian Jing et al., “A Ball Milling Strategy to Disperse Graphene Oxide in Cement Composites,” New Carbon Materials, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 569-577, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[27] Tanvir S. Qureshi et al., “Nano-Cement Composite with Graphene Oxide Produced from Epigenetic Graphite Deposit,” Composites Part B: Engineering, vol. 159, pp. 248-258, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[28] Donghoon Kang et al., “Experimental Study on Mechanical Strength of GO-Cement Composites,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 131, pp. 303-308, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[29] Li Zhao et al., “Mechanical Behavior and Toughening Mechanism of Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer Modified Graphene Oxide Reinforced Cement Composites,” Composites Part B: Engineering, vol. 113, pp. 308-316, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[30] Lanzhen Yu, and Rongxing Wu, “Using Graphene Oxide to Improve the Properties of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete with Fine Recycled Aggregate,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 259, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[31] Shaoqiang Meng et al., “The Role of Graphene/Graphene Oxide in Cement Hydration,” Nanotechnology Reviews, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 768-778, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[32] Stefanos Mourdikoudis, Roger M. Pallares, and Nguyen T.K. Thanh, “Characterization Techniques for Nanoparticles: Comparison and Complementarity Upon Studying Nanoparticle Properties,” Nanoscale, vol. 10, no. 27, pp. 12871-12934, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[33] Sanglakpam Chiranjiakumari Devi, and Rizwan Ahmad Khan, “Influence of Graphene Oxide on Sulfate Attack and Carbonation of Concrete Containing Recycled Concrete Aggregate,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 250, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[34] Hongyan Chu et al., “Effect of Graphene Oxide on Mechanical Properties and Durability of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Prepared from Recycled Sand,” Nanomaterials, vol. 10, no. 9, pp. 1-17, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[35] Kalaiselvi Subramani, and Arun Kumar Ganesan, “Synergistic Effect of Graphene Oxide and Coloidalnano-Silica on the Microstructure and Strength Properties of Fly Ash Blended Cement Composites,” Matéria (Rio de Janeiro), vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 1-17, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[36] Wengui Li et al., “A Comprehensive Review on Self-Sensing Graphene/Cementitious Composites: A Pathway toward Next-Generation Smart Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 331, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[37] Ali Al-Dahawi et al., “Electrical Percolation Threshold of Cementitious Composites Possessing Self-Sensing Functionality Incorporating Different Carbon-Based Materials,” Smart Materials and Structures, vol. 25, no. 10, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[38] Changjiang Liu et al., “Studies on Mechanical Properties and Durability of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Incorporating Graphene Oxide,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol.130, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[39] Miaomiao Hu et al., “Effect of Characteristics of Chemical Combined of Graphene Oxide-Nanosilica Nanocomposite Fillers on Properties of Cement-Based Materials,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 225, pp. 745-753, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[40] Huiting Liu et al., “Hybrid Effects of Nano-Silica and Graphene Oxide on Mechanical Properties and Hydration Products of Oil Well Cement,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 191, pp. 311-319, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[41] Karthik Chintalapudi, and Rama Mohan Rao Pannem, “The Effects of Graphene Oxide Addition on Hydration Process, Crystal Shapes, and Microstructural Transformation of Ordinary Portland Cement,” Journal of Building Engineering, vol. 32, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[42] Ramanjit Kaur, and N.C. Kothiyal, “Positive Synergistic Effect of Superplasticizer Stabilized Graphene Oxide and Functionalized Carbon Nanotubes as a 3-D Hybrid Reinforcing Phase on the Mechanical Properties and Pore Structure Refinement of Cement Nanocomposites,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 222, pp. 358-370, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[43] Gen Li, and L.W. Zhang, “Microstructure and Phase Transformation of Graphene-Cement Composites Under High Temperature,” Composites Part B: Engineering, vol. 166, pp. 86-94, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[44] Tanvir S. Qureshi, and Daman K. Panesar, “Impact of Graphene Oxide and Highly Reduced Graphene Oxide on Cement Based Composites,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 206, pp. 71-83, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[45] P.K. Akarsh et al., “Influence of Graphene Oxide on Properties of Concrete in the Presence of Silica Fumes and M-Sand,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 268, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[46] Hongzhi Cui et al., “Possible Pitfall in Sample Preparation for SEM Analysis - A Discussion of the Paper “Fabrication of Polycarboxylate/Graphene Oxide Nanosheet Composites by Copolymerization for Reinforcing and Toughening Cement Composites,” by Lv et al.,” Cement and Concrete Composites, vol. 77, pp. 81-85, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[47] Jinwoo An et al., “Edge-Oxidized Graphene Oxide (EOGO) in Cement Composites: Cement Hydration and Microstructure,” Composites Part B: Engineering, vol. 173, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[48] Roozbeh Mowlaei et al., “The Effects of Graphene Oxide-Silica Nanohybrids on the Workability, Hydration, and Mechanical Properties of Portland Cement Paste,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 266, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[49] Xiangyu Li et al., “Effects of Graphene Oxide Agglomerates on Workability, Hydration, Microstructure and Compressive Strength of Cement Paste,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 145, pp. 402-410, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[50] Yuxia Suo et al., “Study on Modification Mechanism of Workability and Mechanical Properties for Graphene Oxide-Reinforced Cement Composite,” Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology, vol. 10, pp. 1-12, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[51] A.L. Patterson, “The Scherrer Formula for X-Ray Particle Size Determination,” Physical Review, vol. 56, no. 10, 1939.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[52] Jeffrey J. Chen et al., “A Coupled Nanoindentation/SEM-EDS Study on Low Water/Cement Ratio Portland Cement Paste: Evidence for C–S–H/Ca(OH)2 Nanocomposites,” Journal of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 93, no. 5, pp.1484-1493, 2010.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[53] Kai Gong et al., “Reinforcing Effects of Graphene Oxide on Portland Cement Paste,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, vol. 27, no. 2, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[54] Shahin Hajilar, and Behrouz Shafei, “Nano-Scale Investigation of Elastic Properties of Hydrated Cement Paste Constituents Using Molecular Dynamics Simulations,” Computational Materials Science, vol. 101, pp. 216-226, 2015.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[55] Dongshuai Hou et al., “Nano-Scale Mechanical Properties Investigation of CSH from Hydrated Tri-Calcium Silicate by Nano-Indentation and Molecular Dynamics Simulation,” Construction and Building Materials, vol. 189, pp. 265-275, 2018. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[56] Davoud Tavakoli et al., “Multi-Scale Approach from Atomistic to Macro for Simulation of the Elastic Properties of Cement Paste,” Iranian Journal of Science and Technology, Transactions of Civil Engineering, vol. 44, no. 3, pp. 861-873, 2020. [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[57] V.S. Harutyunyan et al., “Investigation of Early Growth of Calcium Hydroxide Crystals in Cement Solution by Soft X-Ray Transmission Microscopy,” Journal of Materials Science, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 962-969, 2009.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[58] B.S. Sindu, Aleena Alex, and Saptarshi Sasmal, “Studies on Structural Interaction and Performance of Cement Composite Using Molecular Dynamics,” Advances in Computational Design, vol. 3, pp. 147-163, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[59] Elena Bonaccorsi, Stefano Merlino, and H.F.W. Taylor, “The Crystal Structure of Jennite, Ca9Si6O18(OH)6·8H2O,” Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 34, no. 9, pp. 1481-1488, 2004.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[60] C.C. Dharmawardhana, A. Misra, and Wai-Yim Ching, “Quantum Mechanical Metric for Internal Cohesion in Cement Crystals,” Scientific Reports, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1-8, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[61] Ali Bagheri et al., “Graphene Oxide-Incorporated Cementitious Composites: A Thorough Investigation,” Materials Advances, vol. 3, no. 24, pp. 9040-9051, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]