Analysis of the Influence of Sky View Factor on the Thermal Environment of Coastal Settlements in Gorontalo City based on IoT Measurements

International Journal of Civil Engineering

© 2026 by SSRG - IJCE Journal

Volume 13 Issue 2

Year of Publication : 2026

Authors : Amru Siola, Baharuddin Hamzah, Rosady Mulyadi, Nurul Jamala

10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V13I2P108

How to Cite?

Amru Siola, Baharuddin Hamzah, Rosady Mulyadi, Nurul Jamala, "Analysis of the Influence of Sky View Factor on the Thermal Environment of Coastal Settlements in Gorontalo City based on IoT Measurements," SSRG International Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 13,  no. 2, pp. 101-116, 2026. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/23488352/IJCE-V13I2P108

Abstract:

Tropical coastal urban areas are highly vulnerable to climate-induced stress, and thus, a process-based understanding of how the urban morphology regulates microclimate and thermal comfort is required. This paper assesses the impact of SVF on the thermal environment at a coastal settlement in Gorontalo City, Indonesia, by using IoT-integrated measurements and residents’ thermal perception data. Measurements were made at six paired field sites along a Coastal Foothill Transect (T0-T5), using IoT-based monitoring of temperature, humidity, and wind speed, combined with hemispherical photography and savannah view factor estimation from Google Street View. Statistical methods such as ANOVA, multivariate regression, and robust regression were used to correlate objective thermal indices (Ta, PMV, PET) with subjective responses (TSV, Acceptability). The results indicate that low SVF is associated with higher temperature (+2-6 °C), elevated heat perception (TSV +1,7-2,1), and reduced acceptability (≥ 0.76). The mulivariate model (R2adj = 0.84) confirms that SVF primarily influences thermal comfort through airflow regulation rather than direct temperature control. These findings provide rare field-based evidence from a humid tropical coastal control context and highlight SVF as a critical morphological parameter for climate-responsive urban design.

Keywords:

Sky View Factor, Thermal Comfort, Coastal Settlements, Internet of Things, Climate Adaptive, Gorontalo City.

References:

[1] Xue Liu et al., “Spatiotemporal Patterns of Summer Urban Heat Island in Beijing, China Using an Improved Land Surface Temperature,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 257, pp. 1-12, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[2] Jing Kong et al., “Urban Heat Island and its Interaction with Heatwaves: A Review of Studies on Mesoscale,” Sustainability, vol. 13, no. 19, pp. 1-26, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[3] Jiaxuan Li et al., “Study of the Correlation between the Urban Wind-Heat Environment and Urban Development Elements in High-Density Urban Areas: A Case Study of Central Shanghai,” Buildings, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 1-26, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[4] Giulia Ulpiani et al., “Are Cities Taking Action against Urban Overheating? Insights from Over 7,500 Local Climate Actions,” One Earth, vol. 7, no. 5, pp. 848-866, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[5] Tao Shi et al., “Research Progress on the Synergies between Heat Waves and Canopy Urban Heat Island and their Driving Factors,” Frontiers in Environmental Science, vol. 12, pp. 1-11, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[6] Komi Bernard Bedra, and Jiayu Li, “Relevance of Ground and Wall Albedo for Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Tropical Savanna Climates: Evidence from Parametric Simulations,” Sustainability, vol. 17, no. 14, pp. 1-22, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[7] Chng Saun Fong et al., “Traits of Adaptive Outdoor Thermal Comfort in a Tropical Urban Microclimate,” Atmosphere, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1-15, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[8] Adeb Qaid et al., “Urban Heat Island and Thermal Comfort Conditions at Micro-Climate Scale in a Tropical Planned City,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 133, pp. 577-595, 2016.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[9] P.O. Fanger, Thermal Comfort, Analysis and Applications in Environmental Engineering, Copenhagen: Danish Technical Press, 1970.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[10] P. Höppe, “The Physiological Equivalent Temperature-a Universal Index for the Biometeorological Assessment of the Thermal Environment,” International Journal of Biometeorology, vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 71-75, 1999.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[11] ISO 7730:2025: Ergonomics of the Thermal Environment - Analytical Determination and Interpretation of Thermal Comfort using Calculation of the PMV and PPD Indices and Local Thermal Comfort Criteria, International Organization for Standardization, 2005. [Online]. Available: https://www.iso.org/standard/85803.html
[12] John Zacharias, Ted Stathopoulos, and Hanqing Wu, “Microclimate and Downtown Open Space Activity,” Environment and Behavior, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 296-315, 2001.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[13] Liang Chen et al., “Sky View Factor Analysis of Street Canyons and its Implications for Daytime Intra-Urban Air Temperature Differentials in High-Rise, High-Density Urban Areas of Hong Kong: A GIS-Based Simulation Approach,” International Journal of Climatology, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 121-136, 2012.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[14] Wei Feng et al., “Optimization Strategy of Traditional Block form based on Field Investigation-A Case Study of Xi’an Baxian’an, China,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, vol. 18, no. 20, pp. 1-25, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[15] Ariane Middel et al., “Sky View Factor Footprints for Urban Climate Modeling,” Urban Climate, vol. 25, pp. 120-134, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[16] Kristina Blennow, “Sky View Factors from High-Resolution Scanned Fish-Eye Lens Photographic Negatives,” Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 1357-1362, 1995.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[17] Shang Wang, and Yanan Li, “Measurement of Sky View Factor using an Arbitrary Fisheye Lens: A General Algorithm and Practical Guides,” Measurement, vol. 245, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[18] Yupeng Wang, and Hashem Akbari, “Effect of Sky View Factor on Outdoor Temperature and Comfort in Montreal,” Environmental Engineering Science, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 272-287, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[19] T. Gál, F. Lindberg, and J. Unger, “Computing Continuous Sky View Factors using 3D Urban Raster and Vector Databases: Comparison and Application to Urban Climate,” Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 95, no. 1, pp. 111-123, 2009.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[20] M. Dirksen et al., “Sky View Factor Calculations and its Application in Urban Heat Island Studies,” Urban Climate, vol. 30, pp. 1-16, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[21] Chunping Miao et al., “Review of Methods Used to Estimate the Sky View Factor in Urban Street Canyons,” Building and Environment, vol. 168, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[22] Ariane Middel, Jonas Lukasczyk, and Ross Maciejewski, “Sky View Factors from Synthetic Fisheye Photos for Thermal Comfort Routing-A Case Study in Phoenix, Arizona,” Urban Planning, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 19-30, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[23] Jintong Han et al., “Microclimate Spatio-Temporal Prediction using Deep Learning and Land Use Data,” Building and Environment, vol. 253, pp. 1-27, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[24] Ahmed Marey et al., “Urban Morphology Impacts on Urban Microclimate using Artificial Intelligence -A Review,” City and Environment Interactions, vol. 28, pp. 1-27, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[25] Cheung Pui Kwan, and C.Y. Jim, “Subjective Outdoor Thermal Comfort and Urban Green Space Usage in Humid-Subtropical Hong Kong,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 173, pp. 150-162, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[26] George Thomas et al., “Assessment of the Potential of Green Wall on Modification of Local Urban Microclimate in Humid Tropical Climate using Envi-Met Model,” Ecological Engineering, vol. 187, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[27] T.R. Oke, Boundary Layer Climates, 2nd ed., Routledge, 1987.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[28] Sue Grimmond et al., “Integrated Urban Hydrometeorological, Climate and Environmental Services: Concept, Methodology and Key Messages,” Urban Climate, vol. 33, pp. 1-13, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[29] Reihaneh Aghamolaei et al., “A Comprehensive Review of Outdoor Thermal Comfort in Urban Areas: Effective Parameters and Approaches,” Energy & Environment, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 2204-2227, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[30] Wanlu Ouyang et al., “The Cooling Efficiency of Variable Greenery Coverage Ratios in Different Urban Densities: A Study in a Subtropical Climate,” Building and Environment, vol. 174, pp. 1-13, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[31] Erik Johansson, and Moohammed Wasim Yahia, “Wind Comfort and Solar Access in a Coastal Development in Malmö, Sweden,” Urban Climate, vol. 33, pp. 1-8, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[32] D.G. Steyn et al., “The Determination of Sky View-Factors in Urban Environments using Video Imagery,” Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 759-764, 1986.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[33] Gregory A. Miller, and Jean P. Chapman, “Misunderstanding Analysis of Covariance,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 110, no. 1, pp. 40-48, 2001.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[34] Andrew Vincent Bradley, John E. Thornes, and Lee Chapman, “A Method to Assess the Variation of Urban Canyon Geometry from Sky View Factor Transects,” Atmospheric Science Letters, vol. 2, no. 1-4, pp. 155-165, 2004.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[35] M. Jha et al., Urban Microclimate Monitoring using IoT-Based Architecture, Mission-Oriented Sensor Networks and Systems: Art and Science, Springer, Cham, pp. 85-134, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[36] Chunjing Shang et al., “Outdoor Thermal Comfort in a Tropical Coastal Tourist Resort in Haikou, China,” Indoor and Built Environment, vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 730-745, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[37] Jianming Liang et al., “GSV2SVF-an Interactive GIS Tool for Sky, Tree and Building View Factor Estimation from Street View Photographs,” Building and Environment, vol. 168, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[38] ANSI/ASHRAE Addenda a and b to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, ASHRAE Standard, 2004. [Online]. Available:
https://www.ashrae.org/file%20library/technical%20resources/standards%20and%20guidelines/standards%20addenda/55_2004_a_b_final.pdf
[39] Tzu-Ping Lin, Andreas Matzarakis, and Ruey-Lung Hwang, “Shading Effect on Long-Term Outdoor Thermal Comfort,” Building and Environment, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 213-221, 2010.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[40] Qiang Chen et al., “The Influence of Sky View Factor on Daytime and Nighttime Urban Land Surface Temperature in Different Spatial-Temporal Scales: A Case Study of Beijing,” Remote Sensing, vol. 13, no. 20, pp. 1-18, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[41] T.R. Oke, “Street Design and Urban Canopy Layer Climate,” Energy and Buildings, vol. 11, no. 1-3, pp. 103-113, 1988.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[42] International Standard, “ISO 7730:2025, Ergonomics of the Thermal Environment-Analytical Determination and Interpretation of Thermal Comfort using Calculation of the PMV and PPD Indices and Local Thermal Comfort Criteria,” International Organization for Standardization, 2005.
[Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[43] ANSI/ASHRAE Addendum a to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2020, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, ASHRAE Standard, 2020. [Online]. Available: https://www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/bookstore/standard-55-thermal-environmental-conditions-for-human-occupancy
[44] Hao Tang et al., “Field Investigation on Adaptive Thermal Comfort in Rural Dwellings: A Case Study in Linyi (China) during Summer,” Buildings, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1-28, 2024.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[45] Wong Nyuk Hien, and Steve Kardinal Jusuf, “Air Temperature Distribution and the Influence of Sky View Factor in a Green Singapore Estate,” Journal of Urban Planning and Development, vol. 136, no. 3, pp. 261-272, 2010.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[46] Hong Jin et al., “Assessing the Effects of Urban Morphology Parameters on Microclimate in Singapore to Control the Urban Heat Island Effect,” Sustainability, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 1-18, 2018.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[47] Timothy Richard Oke et al., Urban Climates, Cambridge University Press, 2017.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[48] Bao-Jie He, and Lan Ding, and Deo Prasad, “Relationships among Local-Scale Urban Morphology, Urban Ventilation, Urban Heat Island and Outdoor Thermal Comfort under Sea Breeze Influence,” Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 60, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[49] Fawzi Hicham Arrar et al., “Quantification of Outdoor Thermal Comfort Levels under Sea Breeze in the Historical City Fabric: The Case of Algiers Casbah,” Atmosphere, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1-30, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[50] Rongtao Wang et al., “Effects of Sky View Factor on Thermal Environment in Different Local Climate Zoning Building Scenarios-A Case Study of Beijing, China,” Buildings, vol. 13, no. 8, pp. 1-22, 2023.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[51] Tong Lyu, Riccardo Buccolieri, and Zhi Gao, “A Numerical Study on the Correlation between Sky View Factor and Summer Microclimate of Local Climate Zones,” Atmosphere, vol. 10, no. 8, pp. 1-19, 2019.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[52] Pooja Solanki, Lilly Rose Amirtham, and Chirag Deb, “Optimizing Sky View Factor and Vegetation to Mitigate Urban Heat in Hot-Humid Climates,” Discover Cities, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 1-25, 2025.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[53] Erik Johansson, and Rohinton Emmanuel, “The Influence of Urban Design on Outdoor Thermal Comfort in the Hot, Humid City of Colombo, Sri Lanka,” International Journal of Biometeorology, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 119-133, 2006.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[54] Rohinton Emmanuel, and Erik Johansson, “Influence of Urban Morphology and Sea Breeze on Hot Humid Microclimate: The Case of Colombo, Sri Lanka,” Climate Research, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 189-200, 2006.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[55] Hongchi Zhang et al., “Spatial Differences in Thermal Comfort in Summer in Coastal Areas: A Study on Dalian, China,” Frontiers in Public Health, vol. 10, pp. 1-18, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[56] Wei Yang, Nyuk Hien Wong, and Steve Kardinal Jusuf, “Thermal Comfort in Outdoor Urban Spaces in Singapore,” Building and Environment, vol. 59, pp. 426-435, 2013.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[57] Juan A. Acero et al., “Measuring and Comparing Thermal Comfort in Outdoor and Semi-Outdoor Spaces in Tropical Singapore,” Urban Climate, vol. 42, 2022.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[58] A. Salvati et al., “Built Form, Urban Climate and Building Energy Modelling: Case-Studies in Rome and Antofagasta,” Journal of Building Performance Simulation, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 209-225, 2020.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[59] Victorina Arif, and Lin Yola, “The Impact of Sky View Factor on Pedestrian Thermal Comfort in Tropical Context: A Case of Jakarta Sidewalk,” Sustainable Architecture and Building Environment: Proceedings of ICSDEMS 2020, pp. 27-33, 2021.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[60] T.R. Oke, “Canyon Geometry and the Nocturnal Urban Heat Island: Comparison of Scale Model and Field Observations,” Journal of Climatology, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 237-254, 1981.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
[61] Priyadarsini Rajagopalan, Kee Chuan Lim, and Elmira Jamei, “Urban Heat Island and Wind Flow Characteristics of a Tropical City,” Solar Energy, vol. 107, pp. 159-170, 2014.
[CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]